History+of+Constructivism

= = = //**A Brief History of Constructivism**// =

At the beginning of the 19th century there was a large push for a better understanding of the human mind. The psychologists of that time helped to mold many of the current concepts of modern psychology. One aspect of psychology that was studied and debated at the time - and continues to be today – is learning.

According to Behaviorists such as Skinner learning occurred when a new behavior (or change in behavior) occurred in the presence of a stimulus (Web Quest). The Cognitivist approach disagreed with this simplified explanation of learning and was more concerned with the cognitive processes and mental connections that occurred during learning (Web Quest).

[|Jean Piaget] was a well published Cognitive/Developmental Theorist during this time and is probably more famous for his Cognitive Stages Theory than his ideas about cognitive structures but the latter has been given the credit for the birth of Constructivism. Piaget used the word //assimilation// to describe the acquisition of new skills or knowledge from the interaction with one’s environment and //accommodation// was the same process but the result was modification of one’s pre-existing knowledge (Campbell 1997).

[|Lev Vygotsky] agreed with Piaget’s idea of internalizing knowledge after interacting with one’s natural world but Vygotsky believed that social interaction was an important component towards the process of internalization (Miller, 2002). Vygotsky also recognized another variable that affects learning; culture. Vygotsky believed that language, symbols, learning tools, social cues and other cultural differences affected the way an individual internalizes knowledge (2002). Another of Vygotsky’s contributions was his concept of the Zone of Proximal Development.

The Zone of Proximal development lies between an individual’s ability to carry out a task with the aid of another (teacher or peer) and the ability to carry out a task independently (Social Development Theory, n.d.). Constructivist learning believes that individuals construct knowledge through activities that are collaborative, social, meaningful, and engaging thus incorporating all the aforementioned ideas. The work of Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky was highly influential and one man who expanded on their ideas was [| Jerome Bruner.]

Bruner’s Cognitive Constructivism emphasized that the learner actively constructs new knowledge based on their existing knowledge, their interaction with their environment and new information. His work has had a powerful influence on modern educational theory, research, and instructional methodology at least since the 1960s. He suggested that there are three stages of cognitive growth, which can also be seen as inclusive modes of representation for any field of knowledge. Unlike in Piaget’s Developmental theory, these modes are not sequential or age dependent: 1) Enactive stage: Understanding or representing the world through physical actions, motor responses, manipulation of the environment. 2) Iconic stage: Representing the world in images. 3) Symbolic stage: Use of abstract ideas, symbols, language, and logic to understand and represent the world.

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His model of //Discovery Learning// has been widely studied and applied. It emphasizes inquiry-based learning with authentic tasks - active questioning, generating hypotheses, testing, and problem solving. Using a //spiral curriculum// design that continually revisits basic ideas and builds upon them until the student grasps the full cognitive structure, the instructor scaffolds information, organizing and sequencing for the learner’s predisposition and knowledge. This process facilitates cognitive growth and //concept attainment//. Bruner felt that the goal of learning and education cannot be limited to a regurgitation of given information, or doing well on standardized tests. He was passionate about creativity and transformative cognitive structures in an independent, motivated life-long learner who could interact critically with their society. ======


 * References**

Campbell, R. (1997). Jean Piaget's Genetic Epistemology: Appreciation and Critique. This is a revised version of two lectures presented at the Institute of Objectivist Studies Summer Seminar, Charlottesville, VA, July 7 and 8, 1997. Retrieved from: http://hubcap.clemson.edu/%7Ecampber/piaget.html

Driscoll. M.P. (2005). //Psychology of Learning for Instruction // (pp. 384-407; Ch. 11 – Constructivism). Toronto, ON: Pearson.

Duffy, Thomas M., Cunningham, D. J. (2001) Constructivism: Implications for the design and delivery of Instruction. Retrieved from: [|http://iris.nyit.edu/~kkhoo/Spring2008/Topics/Cons/ConstructivismImplications.pd]

Hein, G. E. (1991). Constructivist Learning Theory. The Museum and the Needs of People, CECA (International Committee of Museum Educators) Conference. Retrieved from: []

Constructivism (n.d.). Learning Theories: Retrieved from: []

Miller, P. H. (2002). //Theories of Developmental Psychology, 4th Ed //. (pp. 367-396; Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Approach). New York: Worth.

Social Development Theory (n.d.). Learning Theories. Retrieved from: http://www.learning-theories.com/constructivism.html

Web Quest (n.d.). Retrieved from: http://erincunia.com/portfolio/MSportfolio/ide621/ide621f03production/behavior.htm

Wikipedia: Timeline of Psychology. Retrieved from: []